Contraction (singkatan)

Berikut adalah contoh Contractions lainnya:

1. Positive Contractions (Singkatan Positif)
- I'm = I am
- I've = I have
- I'll = I will
- I'd = I would / I should / I had
- you're = you are
- you've = you have
- you'll = you will
- you'd = you had / you would
- he's = he has / he is
- he'll = he will
- he'd = he had/ he would
- she's = she has/she is
- she'll = she will
- she'd she had/she would
- it's = it has/it is
- it'll = it will
- we're = we are
- we've = we have
- we'll = we will
- we'd = we had/we would
- they're = they are
- they've = they have
- they'll = they will
- they'd = they had/they would

2. Negative Contractions (Singkatan Negatif)
- aren't = are not
- can't = cannot
- couldn't = could not
- didn't = did not
- doesn't = does not
- don't = do not
- hasn't = has not
- haven't = have not
- hadn't = had not
- isn't = is not
- mayn't = may not
- mustn't = must not
- needn't = need not
- shan't = shall not
- shouldn't = should not
- wasn't = was not
- weren't = were not
- won't = will not
- wouldn't = would not

3. Other Contractions (Singkatan yang lain)
- There's a book. = There is a book
  (Ada sebuah buku)
- What's is that = What is that?
  (Apa itu?)
- Who's he? = Who is he?
  (Siapakah dia?)
- Who'll be there? = Who will be there?
  (Siapa yang akan berada disana?

4. Informal Constractions (Singkatan Informal)

Adalah singkatan informal yang biasa digunakan dalam situasi informal.Singkatan ini tidak termasuk dalam kelompok slang, tetapi sedikit menyerupai slang.

Contoh :
- gonna = going to
  I'm not gonna tell you.
  (Saya tidak akan menceritakan kepadamu.)
- Lemme = let me
  Lemme go!
  (Biarkan saya pergi!)
- wanna = want to
  I wanna eat meatball.
  Saya ingin makan bakso.
- whatcha = what are you
  Whatcha going to do?
  (Apa yang akan kamu lakukan?)
- gimme = give me
  Can you gimme a magazine?
  (Dapatkah kamu memberi saya majalah?)
- ain't = has not / have not
  He ain't finished yet.
  (Dia belum menyelesaikannya.)
  I ain't sure.
  (Saya tidak yakin.)

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List of Adjectives

The following lists are just a sampling of adjectives in the English language. They are categorized by the type of attribute they describe.

But, this list of adjectives are out of completeness. so, please use the dictionary co complete it. 

Appearance Adjectives adorable beautiful clean drab elegant fancy glamorous handsome long magnificent old-fashioned plain quaint sparkling ugliest unsightly wide-eyed	Color Adjectives  red orange yellow green blue purple gray black white	Condition Adjectives alive better careful clever dead easy famous gifted helpful important inexpensive mushy odd powerful rich shy tender uninterested vast wrong.	Feelings (Bad) Adjectives angry bewildered clumsy defeated embarrassed fierce grumpy helpless itchy jealous lazy mysterious nervous obnoxious panicky repulsive scary thoughtless uptight worried
Feelings (Good) Adjectives agreeable brave calm delightful eager faithful gentle happy jolly kind lively nice obedient proud relieved silly thankful victorious witty zealous	Shape Adjectives  broad chubby crooked curved deep flat high hollow low narrow round shallow skinny square steep straight wide.	Size Adjectives  big colossal fat gigantic great huge immense large little mammoth massive miniature petite puny scrawny short small tall teeny teeny-tiny tiny	Sound Adjectives cooing deafening faint hissing loud melodic noisy purring quiet raspy screeching thundering voiceless whispering
Time Adjectives ancient brief early fast late long modern old old-fashioned quick rapid short slow swift young	Taste/Touch Adjectives bitter delicious fresh greasy juicy hot icy loose melted nutritious prickly rainy rotten salty sticky strong sweet tart tasteless uneven weak wet wooden yummy	Touch Adjectives boiling breeze broken bumpy chilly cold cool creepy crooked cuddly curly damaged damp dirty dry dusty filthy flaky fluffy freezing hot warm wet	Quantity Adjectives abundant empty few full heavy light many numerous sparse substantial

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GENRE (kinds of text) in English Language

GENRE (kinds of text) in English Language

There are many kinds of English text. Those are recount, report, discussion, Explanation, Exposition, new item anecdote, narrative, procedure, description, and review. But, in this article I’ll explain about recount, report, narrative, procedure and description.

1. Recount Text
Social Function : to retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining.

Generic Stucture:
a. Orientation: provides the setting and introduces the participants
b. Events : tell what happened, in what sequences
c. Reorientation: optional closure of events

Significant lexiogrammatical features:
Focus on specific participants, use material processes, circumstances on time and place, use past tense, focus on temporal sequence

2. Report Text
Social Function : to describe the way things are with reference to a range of natural, manmade, and social phenomena in our environment

Generic Stucture:
a. General classification: tells what phenomena under the discussion
b. Description: tells what the phenomenon under the discussion is like in terms of parts, qualities, habits or behaviour.

Significant Lexiogrammatical Features:

Focus on generic participants, use relational processes to state what is and that which it is. use simple present tense


3. Narrative Text
Social Function : to amuse, entertain

Generic Stucture:

a. Orientation: sets the scene and introduces the participants

b. Evaluations: a stepping back to evaluate the plight.

c. Complication: a crisis arises

d. Resolution : the crisis is resolved

e. reorientation: optional

Significant lexiogrammatical features:

Focus n specific participants, use material processes, behavioral processes, and verbal processes. USe temporal conjuctions, and temporal circumstances, use past tense

4. Procedure Text

Social Function : to describe how something is accomplished through a sequences of actions or steps.

Generic Stucture:

a. Goal

b. Material

c. Steps 1-n

Significant lexicogrammatical features:

Use simple present tense, often imperative. use mainly material processes

5. Descriptive Text

Social Function : to describe a particular person, places, or things

Generic Stucture:

a. Identification: identifies the phenomenon to be described

b. Description: describes parts, qualities, characteristics

Significant lexicogrammatical features:

Focus on specific participants, use simple present tense

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Prepositions "With", "Over", and "By"

With

Used to indicate being together or being involved:

• I ordered a sandwich with a drink.
• He was with his friend when he saw me.
• She has been working with her sister at the nail shop.
• The manager will be with you shortly.

Used to indicate "having":

• I met a guy with green eyes.
• Were you the one talking with an accent?
• People with a lot of money are not always happy.

Used to indicate "using":

• I wrote a letter with the pen you gave me.
• This is the soup that I made with rice and barley.
• He cut my hair with his gold scissors.

Used to indicate feeling:

• I am emailing you with my sincere apology.
• He came to the front stage with confidence.

Used to indicate agreement or understanding:

• Are you with me?
• Yes, I am completely with you.
• She agrees with me.

Over

Used to indicate movement from one place to another:

• Come over to my house for dinner sometime.
• Could you roll over?
• They sent over a gift for his promotion.

Used to indicate movement downward:

• The big tree fell over on the road.
• Can you bend over and get the dish for me?
• He pushed it over the edge.

Used to indicate more than an expected number or amount:

• This amount is over our prediction.
• Kids twelve and over can watch this movie.
• The phone rang for over a minute.

Used to indicate a period of time:

• I worked there over a year.
• She did not sleep there over this past month.

By

Used to indicate proximity:

• Can I sit by you?
• He was standing by me.
• The post office is by the bank.

Used to indicate the person that does something in a passive voice sentence:

• The microwave was fixed by the mechanic.
• The flowers were delivered by a postman.
• The branch office was closed by the head office.

Used to indicate an action with a particular purpose:

• You can pass the exam by preparing for it.
• I expressed my feeling toward her by writing a letter.
• She finally broke the record by pure effort.

Used to indicate a mean or method:

• Please send this package to Russia by airmail.
• I came here by subway.

[Quiz 24.1]

Choose the correct preposition in each sentence.

1) If she left at 4 p.m., she should be here                      (with, over, by) now.
2) Go                      (with, over, by) there and catch my ball.
3)                      (With, Over, By) your determination, you will be able to achieve your dream.
4) I just found it! It was                      (with, over, by) the radio on my desk.
5) I knocked him                      (with, over, by) accidentally.
6) She was                      (with, over, by) me when the accident occurred.

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Prepositions "Of", "To", and "For"

Of

Used for belonging to, relating to, or connected with:

• The secret of this game is that you can’t ever win.
• The highlight of the show is at the end.
• The first page of the book describes the author’s profile.
• Don’t touch it. That’s the bag of my friend’s sister.
• I always dreamed of being rich and famous.

Used to indicate reference:

• I got married in the summer of 2000.
• This is a picture of my family.
• I got a discount of 10 percent on the purchase.

Used to indicate an amount or number:

• I drank three cups of milk.
• A large number of people gathered to protest.
• I had only four hours of sleep during the last two days.
• He got a perfect score of 5 on his writing assignment.

To

Used to indicate the place, person, or thing that someone or something moves toward, or the direction of something:

• I am heading to the entrance of the building.
• The package was mailed to Mr. Kim yesterday.
• All of us went to the movie theater.
• Please send it back to me.

Used to indicate a limit or an ending point:

• The snow was piled up to the roof.
• The stock prices rose up to 100 dollars.

Used to indicate relationship:

• This letter is very important to your admission.
• My answer to your question is in this envelop.
• Do not respond to every little thing in your life.

Used to indicate a time or a period:

• I work nine to six, Monday to Friday.
• It is now 10 to five. (In other words, it is 4:50.)

For

Used to indicate the use of something:

• This place is for exhibitions and shows.
• I baked a cake for your birthday.
• I put a note on the door for privacy.
• She has been studying hard for the final exam.

Used to mean because of:

• I am so happy for you.
• We feel deeply sorry for your loss.
• For this reason, I’ve decided to quit this job.

Used to indicate time or duration:

• He’s been famous for many decades.
• I attended the university for one year only.
• This is all I have for today.

[Quiz 23.1]

Choose the correct preposition in each sentence.

1) I slept                      (of, to, for) only two hours last night.
2) It was my first trip                      (of, to, for) Hawaii.
3) Turn off the TV and go straight                      (of, to, for) bed.
4) This book was written                      (of, to, for) the people who want to learn how to play a guitar.
5) I was late                      (of, to, for) school.
6) Spencer is one                      (of, to, for) my best friends.

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Pronouns

A pronoun takes the place of a noun.

Example story:

Mary is one of the heads of the ToJi Corporation. Mary works with Mr. James and Mr. James' son Tom. Mr. James and Mr. James' son Tom are experts in biochemistry. Mary, Mr. James, and Tom researched and invented a drug for cancer treatment.

If the story above is written using pronouns:

Mary is one of the heads of the ToJi Corporation. She works with Mr. James and his son Tom. He and his son Tom are experts in biochemistry. They researched and invented a drug for cancer treatment.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to a person:

• I go to school.
• You are a student.
• They are Koreans.
• He works here.
• We gave her food.

The word ‘it' refers to an object:

• I drank it.
• It is big.
• They cut it into halves.

Memorize the personal pronouns:

		Singular Subject	Singular Object	Singular Reflexive	Plural Subject	Plural Object	Plural Reflexive
First		I	me	myself	we	us	ourselves
Second		you	you	yourself	you	you	yourselves
Third	Male	he	him	himself	they	them	themselves
Third	Female	she	her	herself	they	them	themselves
Third	Neutral	it	it	itself	they	them	themselves

[Quiz 4.1]

Write the correct pronoun in each blank.

1) I ate an apple.                     was delicious.
2) You look tired.                     should rest.
3) She is a teacher. I gave                    a book.
4) They are my friends. I like                     very much.
5) He saw the movie.                     was fun.

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HISTORY OF MORPHOLOGY and MORPHOLOGICAL INTERFACE

CHAPTER ONE

MORPHOLOGY

Araanged by:

Seven Remen Rae P

IKIP MATARAM

2013

PREFACE

Thanks god for giving us the chance to finish this assignment.

This work paper discusses about a glance history of morphology and morphological interface. English students are expected to understand about the history of morphology. And also about morphological interface, it is crucial in the study of word-structure.

Finally, this assignment has been finished, even thought we got a bit problem at the first arrangement.

And thanks a lot for my friends who have helped us for finishing this work paper.

HISTORY OF MORPHOLOGY

Before nineteenth century, morphology did not emerge as a distinct sub-branch of linguistics. But now, morphology is a distinct sub-branch of linguistic.

In 1786, Sir William Jones claimed that Sanskrit, Latin, Persian and Germanic languages were descended from a common ancestor. In 1816, Franz Bopp supporting Sir Jones’ finding. His evidence was based on comparison of the grammatical endings of words in these languages.

In 1899, under the influence of Darwinian Theory of evolution, Mark Muller delivered his lectures in Oxford that the study of the evolution of words illuminated the evolution of language just as in biology morphology. His specific claim was that the study of the 400-500 basic roots of the Indo-European ancestors of many of the languages of Europe and Asia was the key to understanding the origin of human language.

In 1993, Katamba argues that such evolutionary pretensions were abandoned very early in the history of morphology. He said that in this country, morphology is regarded as an essential synchronic discipline, which is a discipline focusing on the study of word-structure at one stage in the life of a language rather than on the evolution of words.

Linguistic analyses also proposed a separation of Levels in linguistic:

            Semantic level (dealing with meaning)

            Syntactic level (dealing with sentence-structure)

            Morphological level (dealing with word-structure)

            Phonology / Phonemics (dealing with sound system)

The analyst producing a description of a language was seen as one of working out, in separate stages. The levels were assumed to be ordered in a hierarchy. The first pronunciation, second the word-structure, third the sentence structure and finally the meaning of utterances. But, in 2002, Hanafi added pragmatics to the separation of linguistic levels, because language use cannot be described without reference to syntax and semantics.

           

Pragmatic level (dealing with language in use)

Semantic level (dealing with meaning)

            Syntactic level (dealing with sentence-structure)

            Morphological level (dealing with word-structure)

            Phonology / Phonemics (dealing with sound system)

MORPHOLOGICAL INTERFACE

Morphology is the study of morpheme. It is the smallest unit of word.

Morpheme is separated into free morpheme and bound morpheme.

Katamba defines a lexeme as an abstract vocabulary item of a word, because it is meaningful.

            A          (one morpheme)

            A book (two morphemes)

            A red book (three morphemes)

But, in Indonesian, a is only a letter. No significant meaning.

            Rapat   (one morpheme)

            Me-rapat (two morphemes)

            Me-rapat-kan (three morphemes)

            Me-rapat-kan-nya (four morphrmes)

MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL INTERFACE

The interface between morphology and phonology is common because they are closely related discipline.

Examples:

            Liberty (noun) è liberties (noun plural)

Note : “-s” for noun plural on the noun form liberty in which the /y/ becomes /i/. This phonological process occur to the final syllable –ty .

            Independence (noun) è independency (noun)

            Note :  the /e/ is replaced by /y/ when the base is ended with –ce.

Examples from Indonesian word-formation:

            Batu (noun)     è membatu (verb)

            Semen (noun) è menyemen (verb)

            Tari (noun)      è menari (verb)

            Gambar (noun)è menggambar (verb)

Note : to become a verb (the right side), a noun should take a nasal prefix.

Nasal è me- è mem-, meny-, men-, meng-.

Me-prefix becoming mem-, meny-, men-, and  meng- is due to the initial consonant sounds of the roots.

Places of articulation deals with the modified airstreams that produce different sounds. Manners of articulation show the different positions of the lips, tongue, velum and glottis to produce different sound types.

MORPHO-SYNTACTICAL INTERFACE

Morpho-syntax is called grammar. Only in a clause structure a morpheme is meaningful.

Indonesian examples :

            Anak-nya di-pukul-i

            Anis me-nertawa-kan teman-nya

            Mereka berpukul-an

Note :  in –nya is possessive marker for third person singular

            di- is a passive prefix

-i Is suffix for iterative

            -kan  suffix is used to show an applicative marker

            -an suffix as a reciprocal activity and thus it is a reciprocal marker

We can say that the interface between morphology and syntax is due to inflections on the verbs. Morpho-syntax is closely related to inflectional morphology.

This is the final page of this work paper.

I hope many things that we can take of this work paper.

I dedicate for my friends who helped me in finishing this work paper.

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Present participle, past participle, perfect participle

1) present participle

The present participle is often used when we want to express an active action.
In English we add -ing to the infinitive of the verb.

Use of the present participle

Progressive/ Continuous tense	He is reading a book.
	He was reading a book.
Gerund	Reading books is fun.
	He likes reading books.
Participle	Look at the reading boy.
	He came reading around the corner.
	He sat reading in the corner.
	I saw him reading.

2-1) past participle

The present participle is often used when we want to express a passive action.
In English we add -ed to the infinitive of regular verbs. We use the 3rd column of the table of the irregular verbs.

Use of the past participle

Perfect tenses	He has forgotten the pencil.
	He had forgotten the pencil.
Passive voice	A house is built.
	A house was built.
Participle	Look at the washed car.
	The car washed yesterday is blue.
	He had his car washed.

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2-2) Compounds with the past participle

This combination is also known as perfect participle. It is used to form an active sentence with the past participle. There is a time gap between the actions.

past participle and having

Having read the book the boy came out of the room.

One action happened after the other.

present participle

The boy came reading out of the room.

Both actions happened at the same time.

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