Present participle, past participle, perfect participle

1) present participle

The present participle is often used when we want to express an active action.
In English we add -ing to the infinitive of the verb.

Use of the present participle

Progressive/ Continuous tense	He is reading a book.
	He was reading a book.
Gerund	Reading books is fun.
	He likes reading books.
Participle	Look at the reading boy.
	He came reading around the corner.
	He sat reading in the corner.
	I saw him reading.

2-1) past participle

The present participle is often used when we want to express a passive action.
In English we add -ed to the infinitive of regular verbs. We use the 3rd column of the table of the irregular verbs.

Use of the past participle

Perfect tenses	He has forgotten the pencil.
	He had forgotten the pencil.
Passive voice	A house is built.
	A house was built.
Participle	Look at the washed car.
	The car washed yesterday is blue.
	He had his car washed.

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2-2) Compounds with the past participle

This combination is also known as perfect participle. It is used to form an active sentence with the past participle. There is a time gap between the actions.

past participle and having

Having read the book the boy came out of the room.

One action happened after the other.

present participle

The boy came reading out of the room.

Both actions happened at the same time.

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Participles, Participle constructions

Use

1	to shorten relative clauses
2	to make one sentence out of two
3	after verbs of "perception" (e.g. see, watch, hear, listen to, smell, feel)
4	after verbs of "rest" and "movement" (e.g. run, go, come, stay, stand, lie, sit)
5	after the verb have
6	instead of a subordinate clause

Form

present participle

an exciting race

past participle

excited people

Examples

1	The cars which are produced in Japan are nice. The cars produced in Japan are nice.
2	I saw the man. He came to the shop. I saw the man coming to the shop.
3	I saw the car coming round the corner.
4	The girl sat sleeping on the sofa.
5	I have my clothes washed.
6	When they went to Texas they expected a better job. Going to Texas they expected a better job.

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The comparison of adverbs in English

There are three forms:

- positive
- comparative
- superlative

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A - Comparison with -er/-est

hard - harder - (the) hardest

We use -er/-est with the following adverbs:

1) all adverbs with one syllable

positive	comperative	superlative
fast	faster	fastest
high	higher	highest

1) the adverb early

positive	comperative	superlative
early	earlier	earliest

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B - Comparison with more - most

adverbs ending on -ly
(except: early)

positive	comperative	superlative
carefully	more carefully	(the) most carefully

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C - Irregular adverbs

positive	comperative	superlative
well	better	best
badly	worse	worst
much	more	most
little	less	least
late	later	last
far	farther further	farthest furthest

ATTENTION!
In informal English some adverbs are used without -ly (e.g. cheap, loud, quick).
There are two forms of comparison possible, depending on the form of the adverb:
cheaply - more cheaply - most cheaply
cheap - cheaper - cheapest

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